HomePsychology and Education: A Multidisciplinary Journalvol. 19 no. 8 (2024)

Lived Experiences of Jail Officers on High Congestion Rate of Person Deprived of Liberty in Jail During Pandemic

Edelyn Claveria | Jeralyn Jordan | Kyla Malasique | Adrian Christian Pugate

Discipline: Education

 

Abstract:

The COVID-19 pandemic brought unprecedented problems to correctional facilities globally, increasing issues of overcrowding and public health. This study delves into the lived experiences of jail officers during the pandemic, focusing on their experiences with high congestion rates among persons deprived of liberty. Twelve participants were given detailed semi structured interviews to investigate their lived experiences, and the data was analyzed utilizing interpretative phenomenological analysis. This study exposes the many challenges that these jail officers encountered as they reached an intricate setting where health, safety, and justice all intersected. Findings discuss the emotional experiences, health risks, and personal problems experienced by jail officers while upholding their duty of care. Moreover, this study emphasizes the importance of lawmakers actions and reform within the criminal justice system to ensure the safety of both jail officials and inmates as well as following public health crises. The experiences of jail officers, who were first hand witnesses of the pandemic's outcome on the prison population, provide light on important facets of our society's behavior to these unprecedented conditions. This study informs concerning future readiness and change in the criminal justice system and helps us understand the intricate dynamics that existed within correctional facilities throughout the epidemic.



References:

  1. Alexander, A., Allo, H., & Klukoff, H. (2020) Sick and shut in: Incarceration during a public health crisis. Journal of Humanistic Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167820930556
  2. Bai, Y., Lin, C., Chen, J., Chue, C., Chou, P. (2020) Survey of stress reactions among health care workers involved with the SARS outbreak.  Psychiatr Serv. 2004;55(9):1055-1057. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.55.9.1055
  3. Bautista (2014), Integrated Jail Management System for the Bureau of Corrections, 1,31-84. https://scholar.google.com.ph/scholar?prmd=inv&biw=360&bih=566&dpr=2&um=1&ie=UTF8&lr&q=related:mP81:scholar.google.com/#d=gs_qabs&p=&u=%23p%3DmP81
  4. Barr L. (2020)  Federal prisons facing shortages of resources amid coronavirus outbreak. ABC News https://www.vox.com/2020/4/22/21228146/coronavirus-pandemic-jails-prisons-epicenters Accessed 23 Apr 2020
  5. Barr L. (2020). No days off for police departments during coronavirus outbreak. ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/Health/days-off-police-departments-coronavirus-outbreak/story?id=69583481
  6. Bick (2020) Infection control in jails and prisons. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 45(8), 1047–1055. https://doi.org/10.1086/521910.
  7. Black K.  (2010) “Business Statistics: Contemporary Decision Making” 6th edition, John Wiley & Sons https://research-methodology.net/sampling-in-primary-data-collection/purposive-sampling/#_ftn1
  8. Braswell, B., Carrier, J., Guice, G., Philipps, J., Melder, A. (2020) The United States of America, Case 1:20-cv-00359-VJW. Retrieved from https://www.classaction.org/media/braswell-et-al-v-the-united-states-of-america.pdf
  9. Brooks, S. K., Webster, R. K., Smith, L. E., Woodland, L., Wessely, S., Greenberg, N., et al. (2020). The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: rapid review of the evidence. Lancet 395, 912–920. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8
  10. Bureau of corrections (BuCor), Department of Justice, Republic of the Philippines - Chan robles virtual law library. (n.d.). ChanRobles and Associates Law Firm : Home of ChanRobles Virtual Law Library : chanrobles.com. https://chanrobles.com/legal3dojbucor.html#
  11. Bureau of Justice Statistics (2015). Overcrowding. Retrieved from http://www.bjs.gov/
  12. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2015). Bureau of Labor Statistics (2015). Occupational outlook handbook. Correctional officers. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/ooh/Protective-Service/Correctional-officers.htm
  13. Chappel & Pfleger (2020) 73% of inmates at an Ohio prison test positive for coronavirus. Retrieved May 1, 2020. Retrieved from  https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/04/20/838943211/73-of-inmates-at-an-ohioprison-test-positive-for-coronavirus
  14. Charlick, S. J., Pincombe, J., McKellar, L., & Fielder, A. (2016). Making Sense of participant Experiences: Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis in midwifery research. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 11, 205–216. https://doi.org/10.28945/3486
  15. Cook, R. (2015). Fulton jail no longer under court oversight. http://www.myajc.com/news/fulton-jail-longer-under-courtversight/9qxMYPiVyLNVF0ALfWMxNK/
  16. Creswell, J. (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Traditions. California, United States of America: SAGE Publications, Inc. psycnet.apa.org/record/2006-13099-000
  17. Cypryańska, M., and Nezlek, J. B. (2020). Anxiety as a mediator of relationships between perceptions of the threat of COVID-19 and coping behaviors during the onset of the pandemic in Poland. PLoS ONE 15:e0241464. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0241464
  18. Delos Reyes (2023) What Should I Prioritize When Choosing a Course: Passion or Practicality? https://www.candymag.com/lifestyle/passion-or-practicality-college-course-a1793-20230505
  19. Depraz N. (2012) Empathy and second-person methodology. Continental Philosophy Review, 45(3), 447–459. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11007-012-9223-z.
  20. Devex.com. (n.d.). devex.com. Bureau of Jail Management and Penology https://www.devex.com/organizations/bureau-of-jail-management-and-penology-152460?fbclid=IwAR1DrIk-XMmWQgkwt4BygaL2mGVqaZr6Dd60Ssf4s4vFTpvZsqEnpVP3i_
  21. Drew JM and Martin S. (2020); Mental health and well-being of police in a health pandemic: critical issues for police leaders in a post-COVID-19 environment. JCSWB 5(2):31–36. https://doi.org/10.35502/jcswb.133
  22. Drummond, J. J. (2009) Historical dictionary of Husserl’s philosophy - PhilPapers. PhilPapers: Online Research in Philosophy. https://philpapers.org/citations/DRUHDO
  23. Ferdick & Smith (2017) Correctional Officer Safety and Wellness Literature Synthesis. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice. www.ncjrsgov/pdffiles1/nij/250484.pdf
  24. Escort Officer - College of Policing. (2023, May 24). College of Policing. https://profdev.college.police.uk/professional-profile/escort-officer/
  25. Fisher EB, Miller SM, Evans M, Luu SL, Tang PY, Dreyer Valovcin D, Castellano C (2020) COVID-19, stress, trauma, and peer support-observations from the field. Transl Behav Med 10(3):503–505. https://doi.org/10.1093/tbm/ibaa056
  26. Gibson and Hanes (2003) The Contribution of Phenomenology to HRD Research Human Resource Development Review 2(2):181-205 DOI:10.1177/1534484303002002005
  27. Gordon, E.H., Vacher L, Kuppens T. (2017) “To serve and protect” when expecting to be seen negatively: the relation between police officers’ contact with citizens, meta-stereotyping, and work-related well-being. J Community Appl Soc Psychol 27(3):253–268. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2310
  28. Gordon, J., and Baker, T. (2017) ‘Examining correctional officers’ fear of victimization by inmates: The influence of fear facilitators and fear inhibitors ,’ Criminal Justice Policy Review, 28 (5), 462-487. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403415589630
  29. Griffin, M. (1999) The Influence of Organizational Climate on Detention Officers’ Readiness to Use Force in a County Jail. Criminal Justice Review, 24(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/073401689902400102
  30. Grover S, Sahoo S, Dua D, Mehra A, Nehra R. (2020) Psychological impact of COVID-19 duties during lockdown on police personnel and their perception about the behavior of the people: an exploratory study from India. Int J Ment Health Addict. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00408-8
  31. Heidegger, M. (1962). Being and time. Oxford: Blackwell. https://www.scirp.org/(S(351jmbntvnsjt1aadkposzje))/reference/ReferencesPapers.aspx?ReferenceID=1276938
  32. Hinkin, T. R. & Tracey, J. B. (2000). The cost of turnover: Putting a price on the learning curve. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 41(3), 14-21. http://scholarship.sha.cornell.edu/articles/445/
  33. Hong, Y., Zhang, Y., Xue, P., Fang, X., Zhou, L., Wei, F., Lou, X., & Zou, H. (2022). The influence of long working hours, occupational stress, and Well-Being on depression among couriers in Zhejiang, China. Frontiers in Psychology, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.928928
  34. International Committee of the Red Cross (2017). COVID-19: Lessons from the Philippines jails show how to fight infectious coronavirus disease.  https://www.icrc.org/en/document/philippines-amidst-covid-19-outbreak-icrc-focuses-one-most-vulnerable-places-prisons
  35. Kang-Brown, Hinds, Schattner-Elmaleh, & Wallace-Lee (2019) People in jail in 2019. Vera Institute of Justice. Retrieved from https://www.vera.org/downloads/ publications/people-in-jail-in-2019.pdf
  36. Knaack (2020) Nearly 100,000 more people could die from COVID-19 in jails and surrounding communities if states fail to reduce jail populations. The time to act is now! ACLU South Carolina https://www.aclusc.org/en/news/nearly-100000- more-people-could-die-covid-19-jails-and-surrounding-communities-if-statesfail. Accessed 23 Apr 2020.
  37. Kotera Y (2020) Mental health in a pandemic. Professional Social Work 18. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344499675_Mental_health_in_a_pandemic
  38. Lambert, E. G. (2003) Litigation Views among Jail Staff: An Exploratory and Descriptive Study. Criminal Justice Review, 28(1), 70–87. doi:10.1177/073401680302800105
  39. Lambert, E. G., Gordon, J., Paoline III, E. A., & Hogan, N. L. (2018). Workplace demands and resources as antecedents of jail officer perceived danger at work. Journal of crime and justice, 41(1), 98-118. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2016.1218355
  40. Laufs, J. and Waseem, Z. (2020) Policing in Pandemics: A Systematic Review and Best Practices for Police Response to COVID-19. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 51, Article ID: 101812. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101812
  41. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) Stress, appraisal, and Coping, Springer, New York, NY https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4419-1005-9_215
  42. Lawton-Misra, N. and Pretorius, T. 2021. Leading with Heart: Academic Leadership during the COVID- 19 Crisis. South African Journal of Psychology, 51(2), pp. 205–214. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0081246321992979.
  43. Lentz, L., Smith-MacDonald, L., Malloy, D. C., Anderson, G. S., Beshai, S., Ricciardelli, R., et al. (2022). A qualitative analysis of the mental health training and educational needs of firefighters, paramedics, and public safety communicators in Canada. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19126972
  44. Liu CH, Zhang E, Wong GTF, Hyun S, Hahm HC. Factors associated with depression, anxiety, and PTSD symptomatology during the COVID-19 pandemic: clinical implications for U.S. young adult mental health. Psychiatry Res. (2020) 290:113172. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113172,
  45. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10434863/#ref9
  46. Lopez (2020) Why US jails and prisons became coronavirus epicenters. Vox https://www.vox.com/2020/4/22/21228146/coronavirus-pandemic-jails-prisons-epicenters Accessed 24 Apr 2020
  47. Luthar, S. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2000). The construct of resilience: Implications for interventions and social policies. Development and Psychopathology, 12(4), 857–885. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579400004156
  48. McGrath E, Jones A, Field M. Acute stress increases ad-libitum alcohol consumption in heavy drinkers, but not through impaired inhibitory control. Psychopharmacology. 2016;233(7):1227–34. https://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40359-022-00942-1
  49. Melissa DeJonckheer and Lisa M Vaughn (2023) Semi Structured interviewing in primary care research: a balance of relationship and rigour https://fmch.bmj.com/content/7/2/e000057
  50. McGuckin, J. (2017) Prison Management Booklet. Retrieved from https://rm.coe.int/prison-management-booklet-eng/16807185bd
  51. Montoya-Barthelemy, A. G., Lee, C. D., Cundiff, D. R., & Smith, E. B. (2020). COVID-19 and the correctional environment: The American prison as a focal point for public health. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 58(6), 888–891. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2020.04.001
  52. Nagel (1974) What is it like to be a bat? The Philosophical Review, Vol. 83, No. 4 (Oct., 1974), pp. 435-450://doi.org/10.2307/2183914
  53. Nario-Lopez (2017) Diskarte Lang. Taeza, J. (2000). Managerial approaches to congested jails. Published Thesis: National Defense College of the Philippines. http://www.ombudsman.gov.ph/UNDP4/wpcontent/uploads/2012/12/INMATES-Section-1- FINAL_Inmates-Bibliography.pdf
  54. Nario-Lopez (2021) Diskarte Lang Dealing with Operational Challenges in a Philippine City Jail Social Transformations Journal of the Global South 9(1):159-194 DOI:10.13185/ST2021.09108
  55. National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial Fund 2020; Philippine National Police (2020) Law enforcement officers fatalities report. http://nleomf.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/2020-LE-Officers-Fatalities-Report-opt.pdf
  56. Novisky M.A., Narvey, C.S., & Semenza D.C. (2020) Institutional responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in American prisons. Victims & Offenders. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 15564886.2020.1825582
  57. Oladeru (2020) A call to protect patients, correctional staff and healthcare professionals in jails and prison during the COVID 19 pandemic https://doi.org/10.1186/s40352-020-00119-1
  58. Oladeru, O.T., Tran, NT., Al-Rousan, T. et al. A call to protect patients, correctional staff and healthcare professionals in jails and prisons during the COVID-19 pandemic. Health Justice 8, 17 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40352-020-00119-1
  59. https://healthandjusticejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40352-020-00119-1#citeas
  60. Panaccio, A., Henderson, D., Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., & Cao, X. (2014). Toward an understanding of when and why servant leadership accounts for employee Extra-Role behaviors. Journal of Business and Psychology, 30(4), 657–675. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-014-9388-z
  61. Papazoglou K, Tuttle BMQ (2018) Fighting police trauma: practical approaches to addressing psychological needs of officers. SAGE Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018794794
  62. Paunan (2023) BJMP targets to build more facilities Published April 19, 2023 https://pia.gov.ph/news/2023/04/19/bjmp-targets-to-build-more-facilities
  63. Pietkiewicz, I., Smith, A. (2014) A practical guide to using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis in qualitative research psychology DOI:10.14691/CPPJ.20.1.7
  64. Pittaro (2017) Stress Management Strategies for Corrections Officers. Retrieved from https://www.corrections1.com/stress-management/articles/stress-management-strategies-forcorrections-officers-rBxkzzIeuAtnjIGw/.
  65. Ray (2019) What Are the Causes of Job Satisfaction in the Workplace? https://smallbusiness.chron.com/causes-job-satisfaction-workplace-21851.html
  66. Republic Act No. 6975 | GOVPH. (1990). Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1990/12/13/republic-act-no-6975/
  67. Sager, F., Mavrot C., Frenkel (2020) Switzerland’s COVID-19 policy response: consociational crisis management and neo-corporatist reopening. Eur Policy Anal 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/epa2.1094
  68. Schulte, F., Lucas, E., Rau, J., Szabo L., & Hancock J. (2020) Millions of older Americans live in counties with no ICU beds as pandemic intensifies. Kaiser Health News. Retrieved from https://www.northcarolinahealthnews.org/2020/03/22/millions-of-older-americans-live-in-counties-with-no-icu-beds-as-pandemic-intensifies/
  69. Schweitzer, R., & Steel, Z. (2008). Researching Refugees: Methodological and Ethical Considerations. In P. Liamputtong (Ed.), Doing Cross-Cultural Research: Ethical and Methodological Perspectives (pp. 87–101). Springer Netherlands. 
  70. Simpson et al. (2019) conducted a systematic review. BMJ Open 2019;9:e026806. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-026806  pmid:31340959
  71. Sinha R. How does stress lead to risk of alcohol relapse? Alcohol Res Curr Rev. 2012;34(4):432. https://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40359-022-00942-1
  72. Smith, J. A.,m  Flowers, P., & Larkin, M. (2009) Interpretative phenomenological analysis: Theory, method and research. London. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320655539_Making_Sense_of_Participant_Experiences_Interpretative_Phenomenological_Analysis_in_Midwifery_Research
  73. Smith, J. A., Flowers, P., & Larkin, M. (2009). Interpretative phenomenological analysis: Theory, method and research. London: Sage. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780880903340091
  74. Sourdin, T.,& McNamara, D. (2020). Court innovations and access to justice in times of crisis. Health Policy and Technology, 9(4), 447–453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hlpt.2020.08.020
  75. Statistics of Bureau of Justice (2015) Overcrowding. Retrieved from http://www.bjs.gov/
  76. Stogner, J., Miller, L., Mclean, K. (2020) Police stress, mental health, and resiliency during the COVID-19 pandemic. Am J Crim Justice.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09548-y
  77. Tabingo (2023) Calabarzon, NCR jails over 2K% congested published in June 23, 2023 https://malaya.com.ph/news_news/calabarzon-ncr-jails-over-2k-congested/
  78. Taeza (2000) Managerial approaches to congested jails. Published Thesis: National Defense College of the Philippines. Retrieved from http://www.ombudsman.gov.ph/UNDP4/wpcontent/uploads/2012/12/INMATES-Section-1- FINAL_Inmates-Bibliography.pdf
  79. Taylor S, Landry CA, Paluszek MM, Fergus TA, McKay D, Asmundson GJG. COVID stress syndrome: concept, structure, and correlates. Depress Anxiety. (2020) 37:706–714. doi: 10.1002/da.23071
  80. Toblin RL, Cohen SI, Hagan LM. 2021. SARS-CoV-2 infection among correctional staff in the Federal Bureau of Prisons. Am. J. Public Health 111:1164–67 https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-criminol-030521-103146?fbclid=IwAR0Itfy187xj43jbPyYnn_Yq74QpxHqlGh6M53oW0PiGP9NTTI4MBZNlYcY
  81. Tomczyk, £., and Walker, C. 2021. The Emergency (Cri- sis) E-Learning as a Challenge for Teachers in Poland. Education and Information Technologies, 26(6). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021- 10539-7.
  82. Tsongui O. (2021) Preventing COVID-19 spread in closed facilities by regular testing of employees ‒ An efficient intervention in long-term care facilities and prisons?. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.024958
  83. United Nations Industrial Development Organization. (2002). UNIDO Competencies. http://www.unido.org.
  84. Van Dyne, L., & Pierce, J. L. (2004). Psychological ownership and feelings of possession: Three field studies mediating employees attitudes and organizational citizenship behaviour. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 25, 439 – 459.  https://doi.org/10.1002/job.249
  85. Wallace D (2021) Correctional officers are driving the pandemic in prisons  https://theconversation.com/correctional-officers-are-driving-the-pandemic-in-prisons-164741
  86. Weston, R., M. Gray, L. Qu and D. Stanton (2004) Long Work Hours and the Wellbeing of Fathers and Their Families, Research Paper No. 35, Australian Institute of Family Studies, Melbourne. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266733758
  87. Williams, A. (2014)  Prison Overcrowding Threatens Public Safety and State Budgets. Retrieved from https://www.alec.org/article/prison-overcrowding threatens-public-safety-state-budgets/  ; Cunnif (2002) Jail crowding: Understanding jail population dynamics. City, Jail crowding: Understanding jail population dynamics. City,
  88. State: National Institute of Corrections. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6691&context=dissertation
  89. World Health Organization (2020) WHO Director-General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19 - 11 March 2020. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---11-march-2020
  90. World Health Organization (2020) https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-2019-nCoV-IPC-2020.4 WHO. 2020:1–13. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?journal=Circulation&title=Interim+guidance+for+basic+and+advanced+life+support+in+adults,+children+and+neonates+with+suspected+or+confirmed+COVID-19&volume=141&publication_year=2020&pages=0&
  91. World Prison Brief | an online database comprising information on prisons and the use of imprisonment around the world. (2020). https://www.prisonstudies.org/.
  92. https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.researchgate.net/file.PostFileLoader.html%3Fid%3D53c8b90acf57d7ce4b8b45a2%26assetKey%3DAS%253A273565755084817%25401442234566451&sa=U&ved=2ahUKEwi_yOSa4eKBAxVPRmwGHUhBA98QFnoECAQQAg&usg=AOvVaw1Z7jYT_LtCaiUlelvZFRc6