Home⇛Journal of Interdisciplinary Perspectives⇛vol. 4 no. 2 (2026)

Household Water Handling and Secondary Microbial Contamination in High-Density Urban Communities of the Philippines

Taishi Yazawa | Mai Watanabe | Princess Eden Macabata-rubite | Kenn Joshua Rubite

Discipline: Civil Engineering

 

Abstract:

Access to safe and stable water sources is a key indicator of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6. However, in the Philippines, water scarcity and water quality deterioration remain serious challenges. Using a cross-sectional field assessment, this study investigated domestic water quality and microbial contamination of household utensils in barangays within the densely populated Sampaloc District of Manila. A total of 28 households were surveyed, and tap water and drinking water samples were collected. Physicochemical parameters (water temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, and total dissolved solids) and biological indicators (Escherichia coli and total coliforms) were measured. In addition, E. coli and total coliform contamination on household utensil surfaces was assessed using swab tests. The results showed that tap and drinking water generally maintained acceptable water quality prior to use, whereas high levels of microbial contamination were detected on utensils during water handling. Furthermore, frequent watersupply interruptions were reported in some households, raising concerns about the reliability of the water supply. These findings suggest that, in addition to improving water supply infrastructure, enhancing community awareness and education on water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) is essential to ensuring safe water use at the household level.



References:

  1. Afonso, A., Saavedra, M., Gomes, I., Simões, M., & Simões, L. (2025). Current microbiological challenges in drinking water. Journal of Water Process Engineering, 72, 107614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2025.107614
  2. Alfonso, S.M., Kazama, S., & Takizawa, S. (2022). Inequalities in access to and consumption of safely managed water due to socio-economic factors: Evidence from Quezon City, Philippines. Current Research in Environmental Sustainability, 4, 100117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crsust.2021.100117
  3. Brick, T., Primrose, B., Chandrasekhar, R., Roy, S., Muliyil, J., & Kang, G. (2004). Water contamination in urban South India: Household storage practices and their implications for water safety and enteric infections. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 207(5), 473–480. https://doi.org/10.1078/1438-4639-00318
  4. Chouler, J., & Di Lorenzo, M. (2015). Water quality monitoring in developing countries: Can microbial fuel cells be the answer? Biosensors, 5(3), 450–470. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios5030450
  5. Cortez, L.A., & Siringan, M.A. (2025). The Philippine environmental microbiological water quality criteria: History and current directions. In: Tiquia-Arashiro, S.M., Medema, G., Ubomba-Jaswa, E., Urakawa, H., Ella, V., Libardi, N. (eds) Urban Watershed Microbiology, Volume 2. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-05809-6_14
  6. Department of Health. (2017). Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water of 2017. Department of Health.
  7. Evans, E., & Redmond, E. (2019). Domestic kitchen microbiological contamination and self-reported food hygiene practices of older adult consumers. Journal of Food Protection, 82(8), 1326–1335. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-18-533
  8. Lasco, G., & Hardon, A. (2024). Sensing, knowing, and making water quality along Marikina River in the Philippines. Human Organization, 83(2), 145–158. https://doi.org/10.1080/00187259.2024.2351372
  9. Lee, H., Son, J., Joo, D., Ha, J., Yun, S., Lim, C.-H., & Lee, W.-K. (2020). Sustainable water security based on the SDG framework: A case study of the 2019 Metro Manila water crisis. Sustainability, 12(17), 6860. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12176860
  10. Pfadenhauer, L.M., & Rehfuess, E. (2015). Towards effective and socio-culturally appropriate sanitation and hygiene interventions in the Philippines: A mixed method approach. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12(2), 1902–1927. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120201902
  11. Rosa, G., & Clasen, T. (2010). Estimating the scope of household water treatment in low- and medium-income countries. The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 82(2), 289–300. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2010.09-0382
  12. Santos, T., Wendt, A., Coll, C., Bohren, M., & Barros, A. (2023). E. coli contamination of drinking water sources in rural and urban settings: An analysis of 38 nationally representative household surveys (2014–2021). Journal of Water and Health, 21(12), 1834–1846. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2023.174
  13. Trevett, A.F., Carter, R., & Tyrrel, S. (2005). The importance of domestic water quality management in the context of faecal–oral disease transmission. Journal of Water and Health, 3(3), 259–270. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2005.037
  14. Ulep, V.G., Talamayan, J.T., Casas, L.D., Villaseñor, J.M., & Bacatan, E. (2024). The last-mile challenge: Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) in the Philippines. Philippine Institute for Development Studies. https://doi.org/10.62986/dp2024.19
  15. Elardo, S.V. (2025). Developing a strategic framework in reducing urban heat island effect for cooler high-density communities: The case of Sampaloc, Manila. Journal of Contemporary Social Sciences and Humanities, 8(1), 66–89.
  16. Wright, J., Gundry, S., & Conroy, R. (2004). Household drinking water in developing countries: A systematic review of microbiological contamination between source and point-of-use. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 9(1), 106–117. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3156.2003.01160.x
  17. Yazawa, T., Rubite, K.J., & Macabata-Rubite, P.E. (2024a). How does the citizens’ choice of water use actions based on their empirical knowledge affect the water quality in a rural community of the Philippines? Journal of Water and Health, 22(8), 1541–1555. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2024.177
  18. Yazawa, T., Rubite, K.J., & Macabata-Rubite, P.E. (2024b). Identifying potential concerns on surface water resources usage through citizen scientific field investigation in the Province of Antique, Philippines. Water Policy, 26(4), 429–440. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2024.046
  19. Yazawa, T., Rubite, K.J., & Macabata-Rubite, P.E. (2025). Water quality assessment at consumption points in high school campuses in the Province of Antique, Philippines. The Journal of Indonesia Sustainable Development Planning, 6(1), 31–43. https://doi.org/10.46456/jisdep.v6i1.674

Tools


Copyright © 2026  KITE Digital Educational Solutions |  Exclusively distributed by CE-Logic